Reference grammar

1. In a Latin sentence information tends to come in a standard order. Familiarity with that order can help you to read and understand Latin.

2. In general, expect the nominative first, then accusative, and then verb. For example:

   sorōrēs	gladiōs	vēndēbant
   sisters	swords	they were selling
   The sisters were selling swords.

3. If the nominative does not need to be stated, expect accusative, verb:

   gladiōs	vēndēbant.
   swords	they were selling
   They were selling swords.

4. If there is no accusative, then expect nominative, verb:

   sorōrēs	currēbant.
   sisters	they were running
   The sisters were running.

5. Adverbs, and phrases describing the action, are usually immediately before the verb:

   sorōrēs	gladiōs	in forō	vēndēbant.
   sisters	swords	in the forum	they were selling
   The sisters were selling swords in the forum.

6. A dative noun is usually between the nominative and accusative:

   sorōrēs	cīvibus	gladiōs	in forō	vēndēbant.
   sisters	to the citizens	swords	in the forum	they were selling
   The sisters were selling swords to the citizens in the forum.

   However, a sentence may begin with a dative noun:

   Alexandrō	Sabīna	respondit	‘omnia	temptāvimus.’
   to Alexander	Sabina	replied	all things	we have tried
   Sabina replied to Alexander, 'We have tried everything.'

7. Adjectives may appear before or after the nouns they describe.

   sorōrēs	cīvibus	gladiōs	pulchrōs	in forō	vēndēbant.
   sisters	to the citizens	swords	beautiful ones	in the forum	they were selling
   The sisters were selling beautiful swords to the citizens in the forum.

   Adjectives of size or number are usually before the noun they describe:

   sorōrēs	cīvibus	multōs	gladiōs	in forō	vēndēbant.
   sisters	to the citizens	many	swords	in the forum	they were selling
   The sisters were selling many swords to the citizens in the forum.

8. Genitives usually follow the nouns they describe:

   sorōrēs	cīvibus	gladiōs	parentum	in forō	vēndēbant.
   sisters	to the citizens	swords	of their parents	in the forum	they were selling
   The sisters were selling their parents' swords to the citizens in the forum.

9. Relative clauses also often follow the nouns they describe:

   Sabīna,	quae	paene	rīdēbat,	Alexandrō	appropinquāvit.
   Sabina	who	almost	was laughing	to Alexander	drew near
   Sabina, who was almost laughing, drew near to/approached Alexander.

10. Indirect statements use an accusative and infinitive construction. The accusative usually comes immediately after the verb of saying, thinking, or perceiving. The infinitive often comes at the end of the sentence:

    puellae	dīcunt	hominēs	plaustra,	custōdīre.
    girls	say	men	carts	to guard
    The girls say that men are guarding the carts.

11. Where a participle describes a noun, further information relating to the noun - participle phrase is usually placed between the noun and the participle:

    Giscō	Iūliam	in hortō	stantem	relīquit.
    Gisco	Julia	in the garden	standing	left
    Gisco left Julia standing in the garden.

12. As you become familiar with the usual word order, you may notice when the author departs from that order to emphasize a particular word or point:

    Mānium	in viā	invēnimus	mortuum.
    Manius	in the street	we found	dead
    We found Manius in the street. He was dead.

    
    

    amīcam	Rūfīna	videt.
    friend	Rufina	sees
    It’s her friend that Rufina sees.

    
    

    Sometimes Latin authors used a symmetrical order of words:

    clāmōrēs	hominum	et	equōrum	hinnītus
    shouts	of men	and	of horses	neighing
    the shouts of men and the neighing of horses

    
    

    Latin authors were also fond of using three parallel examples, as well as removing words such as et:

    vigilēs,	cīvēs,	servī	servāre	temptābant	virginēs
    firemen	citizens	slaves	to save	were trying	young women
    The firemen, citizens, and enslaved people were trying to save the young women.

    
    

    Latin verbs are sometimes omitted if they can be understood from elsewhere in the sentence:

    mīles erat nimium gravis, puella nōn valida, glaciēs nōn firma.

    The soldier was too heavy, the girl (was) not strong, the ice (was) not firm.

The vocative case has exactly the same form as the nominative case, except in the singular of the second declension, where -us becomes -e and -ius becomes -ī. For examples see Book 1, page 190.

The locative case endings (singular and plural) are as follows: first declension -ae and -īs; second declension -ī and -īs; third declension -ī or -e and -ibus. In the fourth declension domus has the locative domī.

Comparative and superlative adjectives

Irregular forms of adjectives

For more information on the formation of adverbs from adjectives, see page 16.

There are many other adverbs, such as nunc (now), saepe (often), diū (for a long time), nimium (too much), and vix (hardly).

Comparative and superlative adverbs

Irregular forms of adverbs

Note that the forms of quis? quid? (who? what?) differ from quī, quae, quod (who, which) only in the nominative and accusative singular:

Personal pronouns

The numbers 4–10, 50, and 100 do not change their endings.

The numbers 1–3 change their endings as follows:

* Charts in grey show forms which are not covered in the Language notes. These forms do not appear in the stories.

Forms based on the perfect (tulī) and the perfect passive participle (lātus) are regular.

fīō is used as the passive of faciō in the present, future, and imperfect tenses. In the perfect, future perfect, and pluperfect tenses, the passive forms of faciō (e.g. factus sum) are used.

sum has the future active infinitive fore / futūrus esse (to be going to be) and the future participle futūrus (about to be). Some compounds of sum have a present participle, for example absēns, gen. absentis.

eō and its compounds have the future active infinitive itūrus esse (to be going to go), the present participle iēns, gen. euntis (going), the future participle itūrus (about to go), and the gerundive eundus.

volō has the present participle volēns, gen. volentis (wanting).

1. After ut or ut nōn in clauses expressing the result of a situation:

   Athēna eōs adeō amābat ut eīs oleam daret.

   Athena loved them so much that she gave the olive tree to them.

2. After ut or nē in clauses expressing the purpose of an action:

   lyram in terrā dēposuī, ut saltārem.

   I put down my lyre on the ground, so that I might dance.

3. After ut or nē in indirect commands:

   medica eum monuit nē bracchium movēret.

   The doctor warned him not to move his arm.

4. After ut or nē with verbs of fearing:

   Balbus timēbat nē in proeliō vulnerārētur.

   Balbus was afraid that he might be wounded in battle.

5. In indirect questions:

   pater senem rogāvit quās imāginēs fēcisset.

   My father asked the old man which sculptures he had made.

6. After cum meaning when, since, or because:

   Lūcīlius et parentēs tacēbant, cum nūntius advēnisset.

   Lucilius and his parents were silent, because the messenger had arrived.

7. After dum meaning until:

   mē diū cēlābam dum fūrēs obdormīrent.

   I hid for a long time until the thieves fell asleep.